What is Communication?

The word communication has been derived from the Latin word 'Communicare' and 'communis' which means 'common'. Thus, communication means sharing of ideas in common.

Characteristics of Communication

Key Processes

• Two Way Processes
• Knowledge of Language (Base Language)
• Exchange of Ideas
• Continuous Process - Communication is an endless process

Communication Attributes

• Use of Words as Well as Symbols
• Communication is All-pervasive
• Mutual Understanding

Types of Communication

• Direct Communication: Face-to-face conversation
• Indirect Communication: Through other means

Indirect Communication

• Synchronous communication means that two or more people exchange information in real-time.
• Asynchronous communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more parties without the requirement for all the recipients to respond immediately.

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Process of Communication

• Sender: He is the person who sends the message which may be a thought, idea, symbol, a picture report or an order and postures and gestures, even a momentary smile. He is the initiator of the message.
• Message: It is the content the sender wants to convey to the receiver. It is the information conveyed by words as in speech and write-ups, pictures, signs, or symbols depending upon the situation.
• Encoding: Encoding is transforming the message into an appropriate medium which may be verbal or non-verbal depending upon the situation, space, time and nature of the message to be sent to the intended receiver. The sender encodes the message into a series of words, symbols or pictures.
• Media: A medium serves as the means of communication whereas a channel refers to the means of transmission of a message between the sender and the receiver. A sender conveys his/her message to the receiver by some medium (oral, written, or nonverbal) over some channel (electronic, means or printed Media).
• Receiver: Receiver is the person or group of person for which the message is meant for. He is at the other end of the process. He may be a listener, viewer or a reader. He needs to decode the message sent in the best possible manner such that the intent of the communication is attained.
• Decoding:
• refers to interpreting or comprehending the sent message. The receiver interprets the message and tries to understand it in the best possible manner.
• Feedback
• refers to the response given by the receiver after interpreting the message. It was necessary to ensure that the message has been correctly decoded and comprehended the way it was sent.
• Feed Forward Feedforward, a concept introduced by business educator and coach Marshall Goldsmith, can help create a better workplace by aiding individuals in moving beyond the invisible barriers that hinder their productivity and performance.
• Feedforward Concept Feedforward focuses on future-oriented solutions. When we give feedforward, we focus on a person's future development rather than critiquing and judging their past performance. <br> For example: when anyone comes to you for advice on something, focus on suggesting potential solutions for their challenges without commenting on their behaviours that may have led to that problem.
• Channel Richness <br> Channel richness refers to the quantity and speed with which you can transmit this information through a channel.

<br> Face-to-face communication is extremely rich because it enables the transmission of information with immediate feedback.

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What is Context ?

Context in communication refers to:

• How we communicate changes based on who we are with, what sort of events are occurring around us, our opinions and beliefs, and where we are.
• Anything, from an empty stomach to bad weather, to an awkward situation, can form the context that defines our ability to communicate.
• Great communicators need to know how to interact in any context. Every type of communication is affected by its context.

Temporal Context

is the expectations that people have based on past experiences. If Sha's friends go to the coffee shop every week to talk about their relationships, then by inviting her friends for coffee, Isha has set up an expectation that a certain sort of communication will occur. Refers to sequential positioning.

Social-Psychological Context

is the balance between people's emotional states and their personal relationships.

For example, say Rahul is in a bad mood, but he's having a meeting with his boss. Rahul wants to remain professional, and so he tries to hide his mood and maintains a conversational, productive tone.

Cultural Context

Cultural Context: The cultural context refers to the values, beliefs, lifestyles, and behaviors of a group of people. Such instances will influence whether something is considered right or wrong by the people involved.

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Effective Communication

Effective communication is defined as the ability to convey information to another effectively and efficiently. Effective communication is a process of exchanging ideas, thoughts, knowledge and information such that the purpose or intention is fulfilled in the best possible manner. In simple words, it is nothing but the presentation of views by the sender in a way best understood by the receiver.

Seven C's of Effective Communication

They are applicable to both written as well as oral communication

1. Completeness
   • The communication must be completed.
   • It should convey all facts required by the learners.
2. Conciseness

• Communicate what you want to convey in least possible words without forgoing the other C's of communication.
• Stick to the point and keep it brief.

1. Coherent
   • When your communication is coherent, it's logical.
   • All points are connected and relevant to the main topic, and the tone and flow of the text is consistent.
2. Clarity (clear)
   • When writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message.
   • What is your purpose in communicating with this person?
3. Concreteness

• It implies being/particular and clear rather than fuzzy and general.
• It also strengthens the confidence.
• When your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you're telling them.
• There are details (but not too many!) and vivid facts, and there's laser-like focus.
• Your message is solid.

1. Courtesy

• It implies the message should show the sender's expression as well as should respect the receiver.
• The sender of message or teacher should be sincerely polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic.

1. Correctness

• No grammatical errors in the communication.
• Precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the message.
• It fits your audience.
• Error-free communication.

4 's of Communication:

1. Shortness "Brevity is the soul of wit," it is said. The same can be said about communication. If the message can be made brief, and verbosity did away with, then transmission and comprehension of messages are going to be faster and more effective.
2. Simplicity

• Simplicity both in the usage of words and ideas reveals clarity in the thinking process.
• Reveal clarity in the thinking process by using simple terminology and equally simple concepts.

1. Sincerity

• A sincere approach to an issue is evident to the receiver. If the sender is genuine, it will be reflected in the manner in which he communicates.

1. Strength

• The strength of a message emanates from the credibility of the sender.
• If the sender himself believes in a message that he is about to transmit, there is bound to be strength and conviction in whatever he tries to state.
• Half-hearted statements or utterances that the sender himself does not believe in add a touch of falseness to the entire.

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Types of Communication

1. Simplex Communication

• Characteristics:
  • One-way communication
  • Data flows in single direction only
• Examples:
  • Radio broadcasting
  • Television transmission
  • Newspaper (print media)
• Key Features:
  • Transmitter sends
  • Receiver only receives
  • No feedback mechanism

2. Half-Duplex Communication

• Characteristics:
  • Two-way communication
  • Communication alternates between transmitter and receiver
  • Only one direction at a time
• Examples:
  • Walkie-talkie
  • Two-way radio
• Key Features:
  • Can send and receive
  • But not simultaneously
  • Requires turn-taking in communication

3. Full-Duplex Communication

• Characteristics:
  • Two-way simultaneous communication
  • Data can flow in both directions at the same time
• Examples:
  • Telephone conversations
  • Video conferencing
  • Modern digital communication systems
• Key Features:
  • Transmitter can send
  • Receiver can receive
  • Simultaneous data transmission
  • Bidirectional communication without interruption

Communication Network Types

1. Formal Communication Networks

• Types of Networks:
  • Chain Network
  • Star Network
  • Circle Network
  • All Channel Network
  • Inverted V Network
  • G Network

2. Informal Communication Networks

• Characteristics:
  • Single Stand Network
  • Gossip Network
  • Probability Network
  • Cluster Network

3. Communication Flow Directions

• Vertical Communication
  • Top-down or bottom-up communication
  • Hierarchical communication
  • Typically between different organizational levels
• Horizontal Communication
  • Communication between peers
  • Same level of organizational hierarchy
  • Interdepartmental communication
• Diagonal Communication
  • Cross-functional communication
  • Communication between different departments and hierarchical levels
  • Breaks traditional communication barriers

Communication Types

• Interpersonal or Dyadic communication
• Intrapersonal communication
• Group communication,
• Mass or mediated communication

1. Interpersonal Communication

• Interpersonal communication is the process of exchange of information, ideas, and feelings between two or more people through verbal or non-verbal methods.
• It often includes face-to-face exchange of information, in a form of voice, facial expressions, body language and gestures.

Stages of Interpersonal Communication

1. The phatic stage
2. The personal stage
3. The intimate stage

Phatic Stage

• Verbal or non-verbal communication that has a social function
• Used to start a conversation, greet someone, or say goodbye
• Serves as an initial interaction with little meaningful content

Personal Stage

• Communication begins to bring more personal things into the conversation
• Deeper interaction starts
• People begin to share more personal information

Intimate Stage

• Often reserved for close friends, family, partners
• Involves deep communication and revelation of various emotions

2. Intrapersonal Communication

• Can be defined as communication with one's self and that may include self-talk, acts of imagination and visualization, and even recall and memory
• (McLean, 2005)
• From planning, to problem solving, internal conflict resolution, and evaluations and judgments of self and others, we communicate with ourselves through intrapersonal communication

3. Transpersonal Communication

• Interaction that occurs within a person's spiritual dimension
• Converging with divine and with ancestors
• Involves deeper understanding of self and spiritual experiences
• Goes beyond individual consciousness
• Explores transcendental and metaphysical dimensions of human experience

4. Mass Mediated Communication

• Communication with mass audience is called mass communication
• It is used as synonyms to convenience
• The channel through which communication takes place is called as mass media
• Examples of mass communication include:
  • Radio
  • TV
  • Newspapers
  • Films
  • Magazines
  • Internet
• Mass communication occurs through various media platforms

5. Public Communication

Public communication refers to public speeches that we deliver in front of audience

Characteristics

• It is a different form of interaction that requires greater levels of planning and preparation on the part of the speaker and involves less direct interaction
• Audience member still interact with the speaker/communicator
• Typically, there are less or no one-on-one conversations

Diagram

• Shows Source and Receiver
• Example contexts: Rally, Railway, Airport Announcement

6. Group Communication

Characteristics

• It can be among small or large groups, like an organization, club or classroom, in which all individuals can share their individual identity
• A group is a number of people who shared a common goal

Key Features

• More than 3 people
• Goal
• Known Identity

7. Group Cohesion

• Group cohesion allows group members to work together more easily and feel more positively about their work

Social Loafing

• Social loafing is the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone
• When individuals work in a group, their performance can be less compared to individual work

8. Formal Communication

• A formal communication is deliberately established by upper level of management for day-to-day transmission of official information.

Key Characteristics:

• Follows established organizational hierarchies
• Structured and official communication channel
• Typically flows from top management downwards
• Focuses on official and professional information exchange

1. Chain Network

• In chain network, communication travels up and down through the hierarchy
• Each person communicates with only the person directly above or below
• Follows the formal chain of command

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2. Star Network(wheel network):

• Information and messages flow among group members through a leader
• In other words, group members do not communicate with each other directly but rely on the leader

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3. Circle Network

• In this communication network, the group members interact with the adjoining member only
• Communication is limited to immediate neighboring members
• Members can only communicate with their adjacent/closest members

Mermaid Diagram

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4. All-Channel Network (Most Decentralized):

• Under this communication, all members of a group actively communicate with each other freely
• It is the most decentralized type of formal communication
• Every member can communicate directly with all other members

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5. Inverted-V Network

• Under this communication, a subordinate communicates with:
  1. His immediate superior
  2. As well as second superior

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6. Y-Network:

• Under this communication, two subordinates communicate through the hierarchical chain
• Superior communicates with supervisors who are one to two levels below

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Informal Communication

• An informal communication is an unofficial channel and is the result of the operations of social forces at the workplace. It mainly addresses the social needs of the employees. It is also known as the Grapevine and supplements formal communication.
• Keith Davis has investigated the phenomena of grapevine.

Examples of Grapevine Communication

Production Manager Scenario

• CEO may have friendly relations with the Production Manager
• Manager may reveal inside information about an upcoming business event or personnel changes
• Such information may spread informally through organizational channels before official announcement

Communication Flow Visualization

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Characteristics of Grapevine Communication

• Informal and unofficial
• Spreads quickly through personal networks
• Often based on personal relationships
• Can transmit information before official channels
• Driven by social interactions and personal connections

There are four types of Grapevine Network

1. Single Strand Network

• Under this communication, the information passes from one to one
• That is, one member communicates to another member who in turn communicates to another member and so on

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Key Characteristics

• Linear communication flow
• Information passes sequentially
• Each member acts as a link in the communication chain
• Potential for information distortion increases with each transmission
• Slowest method of information spread

Gossip Network

• Under this communication, the member communicates non-selectively
• A member having information passes it on to everyone he meets
• Gossip arises where a group of people gather up to discuss matters of mutual interest

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Key Characteristics

• Non-selective information sharing
• Rapid and widespread communication
• Information spreads quickly across multiple members
• Often occurs in social gatherings
• Based on mutual interest and shared context

Gossip Chain Network

Members

• R
• A
• F
• D
• C

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Characteristics

• Centralized communication network
• Information flows through a central node
• Multiple members connected to the central point
• Each member receives information from the central source
• Allows quick and simultaneous information spread

Probability Network

• Under this communication, information passes according to the law of probability
• One member communicates to some others in an informational network
• Each of the individual randomly tells others the same message
• The source of information for each of the person hearing the message is different

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Key Characteristics

• Probabilistic information spread
• Random communication pattern
• Multiple branching paths
• Unpredictable message transmission
• Information disperses based on chance
• Each member has a different source of information

Cluster Network

• Under this communication, information passes selectively
• One member communicates with only those members whom he trusts
• In turn, they pass it on to some other selected members
• Is most popular type of grapevine communication and widely prevalent in organization

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Key Characteristics

• Selective information sharing
• Based on trust and personal relationships
• Information passes through trusted network
• Controlled and limited communication
• Maintains confidentiality
• Common in organizational settings
• Slower but more controlled information spread

Cluster Network Visualization

• In a cluster network, the flow of information is passed by selected people to selected few of the others
• Information is transmitted within a limited, trusted group

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Key Characteristics

• Selective information transmission
• Limited network connectivity
• Based on trust and close relationships
• Controlled information spread
• Maintains confidentiality
• Reduces risk of wide information dissemination

Communication Flow in Organizations

Types of Communication Direction

Horizontal Communication

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Vertical Communication

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Diagonal Communication

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Key Characteristics

• Horizontal: Communication between same-level departments
• Vertical: Communication between different hierarchical levels
• Diagonal: Communication across different departments and levels
• Facilitates information flow and coordination
• Helps in problem-solving and decision-making

Vertical Communication

• A formal communication method following the hierarchical chain of command
• Vertical communication can be:
  1. Upward (bottom up)
  2. Downward (top down)

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Characteristics of Vertical Communication

Downward Communication

• Official instructions are sent from top management
• Involves giving directions, orders, and guidelines
• Helps in implementing organizational policies
• Ensures organizational alignment and coordination

Upward Communication

• Subordinates provide feedback to superiors
• Includes suggestions, problems, and progress reports
• Helps management understand ground-level realities
• Promotes employee engagement and participation

Key Benefits

• Maintains organizational hierarchy
• Ensures clear and structured communication
• Facilitates decision-making process
• Improves organizational transparency

Vertical Communication

Definition

• This is basically a formal communication
• Where communication is most dominated
• This follows the hierarchical chain of command
• The vertical direction of communication can be:
  1. Upward (bottom up)
  2. Downward (top down)

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Detailed Characteristics

Upward Communication

• Primarily a communication from subordinates to superiors
• Information flow moves from bottom to top
• Subordinates send information to higher authorities
• Includes reporting, feedback, and suggestions

Downward Communication

• Communication flows from top management to lower levels
• Superiors provide instructions and directives
• Ensures compliance with organizational goals
• Includes orders, guidelines, and performance expectations

Horizontal or Lateral Communication

• It is the communication where people can communicate their colleagues and peers at same level in hierarchical chain
• It is necessary for smooth coordination
• It may be combined of both formal and informal
• It is beneficial when organizations are very large

Key Benefits

• Helps in quick solving of group problems
• Promotes understanding between team members
• Supports direct and immediate communication
• Improves interdepartmental cooperation
• Reduces communication barriers
• Helps in maintaining good employee relations

Mermaid Diagram

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Communication Dynamics

• Bidirectional communication
• Same hierarchical level interaction
• Peer-to-peer knowledge exchange
• Blend of formal and informal communication
• Quick problem-solving mechanism

Diagonal Communication

• Members from different vertical and horizontal hierarchical levels can communicate directly, skipping the typical command chain

Vertical Communication

• The flow of information either upwards or downwards through the hierarchical level of an organization

Mermaid Diagram

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Key Characteristics

• Direct communication across different levels
• Bypasses traditional communication hierarchy
• Enables quick information exchange
• Facilitates cross-functional collaboration
• Breaks down departmental silos

Semiotics

Definition

• Semiotics is the study of the use of symbolic communication

Key Points

• The study of signs, signals, and understanding of meaning in communication
• Explores how meanings are created and interpreted through symbols
• Examines communication beyond literal language
• Investigates signs and sign processes
• Analyzes symbolic representations in various contexts

Core Aspects

• Sign systems
• Symbolic interpretation
• Cultural communication
• Non-verbal communication mechanisms
• Meaning generation and transmission

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Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

1. Verbal Communication

• It is use of words to share information with others. It therefore include both spoken and written words. It refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally.
• The term KISS (Keep It Short and Simple) is almost used in verbal communication.
• Verbal communication is further divided into two categories.

These are Oral and Written communication.Oral Communication (spoken words)

• It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, TV, radio, internet, etc. spoken words are also used in oral communication.
• Oral communication is influenced by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking. They all are termed as para language.

Written Communication

• The communication which is performed through any written document is called written communication.
• Written language, signs, symbols are used to communicate in this communication.

Non-Verbal Communication

• The non-verbal communication are those communication where the sending or receiving of messages are done through the wordless messages.
• It means that communication is established other than oral and written.
• It is all about the body language of the speaker and does not make use of words.

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Proxemics

• It includes the signaling communication; it deals with the regulation of social distances or territoriality.
• People often refer to their need for “personal space,” which is also an important type of nonverbal communication.
• The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is influenced by:
  • social norms
  • cultural expectations
  • situational factors
  • personality characteristics
  • level of familiarity

Personal-Space Zones (Proxemics)

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1. Para Language (Vocalics): This includes all vocalizations that are not verbal but are part of communication. For example, tone of voice, pitch, volume, speech rate, etc.
2. Artifacts: These are physical objects, such as clothing, homes, and cars, that convey a person's personal and social beliefs and habits. Messages are thus communicated in a nonverbal manner.
3. Appearance: Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal communication. Just think of all the subtle judgments you quickly make about someone based on his or her appearance. These first impressions are important, which is why experts suggest that job seekers dress appropriately for interviews with potential employers. Researchers have found that appearance can play a role in how people are perceived and even how much they earn.
4. Culture plays an important role in how appearance is judged. While thinness is valued in Western cultures, some African cultures associate full-figured bodies with better health, wealth, and social status. Haptics refers to non-verbal communication through touch, which is one of the most effective ways to convey feelings and emotions.
5. Kinesics: The word kinesics comes from the root word kinesis, which means “movement,” and refers to the study of body motion, arm and hand gestures, head movements and posture, eye contact, and facial expressions—all are kinesics. The study of eye movement is called Oculesics.
6. Gestures are a form of nonverbal communication in which visible bodily actions are used to communicate important messages, either in place of speech or together and in parallel with spoken words. Gestures include movements of the hands, face, or other parts of the body. 8.There are three main types of gestures: adaptors, emblems, and illustrators (Andersen, 1999). Adaptors are touching behaviors and movements that indicate internal states, typically related to arousal or anxiety. They can be targeted toward oneself, objects, or others. In regular social situations, adaptors result from uneasiness, anxiety, or a general sense that we are not in control of our surroundings.
7. Emblems are gestures that have a specific agreed-on meaning. These are still different from the signs used by hearing-impaired individuals. Even when they have a generally agreed-on meaning, they are not part of a formal sign system explicitly taught to a group of people. The "OK" sign with thumb and index finger connected in a circle, with the other three fingers sticking up, and the raised middle finger are examples of emblems that have an agreed-on meaning or meanings within a specific culture.

Emblems can be still or in motion; for example, circling the index finger around at the side of your head says "He or she is crazy," or rolling your hands over and over in front of you says “Move on.”

Illustrators are the most common type of gesture and are used to illustrate the verbal message they accompany. For example, you might use hand gestures to indicate the size or shape of an object. Unlike emblems, illustrators do not typically have meaning on their own and are used more subconsciously than emblems.

Regulators are nonverbal messages that accompany speech to control or regulate what the speaker is saying. These might include the nodding of the head to indicate that you are listening or understanding something, for instance, and you are encouraging the speaker to continue.

Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. Time perceptions include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions.

Olfactics involves communicative functions associated with the sense of smell, such as body odors, use of perfumes, etc.

Dr. Mehrabian went on to develop a model in which he demonstrated that only 7% of communication is based on content, while 38% is based on tone of voice and 55% accounts for physiology. According to renowned professional psychologist, Albert Mehrabian, 7% of communication is based on words, 38% on tone of voice, and 55% on body language.

Barriers to Communication

• Noise is an interruption that can occur at any point in the communication process and make it ineffective.
• Environmental factors are the main causes of noise, which may include constant disturbances like roadside noises, loudspeakers, or faulty transmission.
• Noise can also arise from other issues such as poor handwriting, heavy accent, or soft speech, which hinder message reception, especially in poorly lit or noisy rooms.
• To ensure smooth and effective communication, it is essential to eliminate or minimize noise as much as possible.

Barriers hinder effective communication. Some of these obstacles are known as barriers to effective communication.

1. Organizational Barriers: These barriers are found within an organizational structure and can be attributed to factors such as complex organizational setup, hierarchical positions, organizational rules, and policies.
2. Physical barriers are environmental and natural conditions that act as obstacles in communication. Physical barriers include: a) Distance between sender and receiver b) Poor lighting c) Background noise.
3. Physiological barriersare distractions caused by factors such as hunger, fatigue, headache, medication, etc.
4. Psychological barriers are obstacles created within a person's psyche; they are the result of an individual's thoughts or preconceived notions. Some important examples include:
5. Filtering means manipulating information in a way that only favorable information is sent to the receiver. In business organizations, when messages are transmitted vertically along the chain of command, some part of the information normally gets lost or can be distorted on the way.
6. Assumption: Communication based on assumptions is bad communication. If it is presumed that managers will pay them financially well, they will work overtime, but if this is not the case, then there is clear indication in this regard. Nothing can be stated as presumed while transmitting official information.
7. Emotions—feeling of love, threat, cruelty, envy, jealousy, embarrassment, etc.—are largely affective and encoding and decoding of the message.
8. Poor Listening/Inattentiveness: We do not listen when we are preoccupied with other thoughts and engagements.
9. Poor Retention: Human mind cannot retain all that is communicated to it orally. It tends to forget a part of the information because of its limited retention capacity.
10. Resistance to Change: Defensive attitude / Closeness of mind / Prejudice of the mind
11. Some people are not open to new ideas, persuasion, and suggestions. They prefer to work along predefined courses of action and are not willing to listen or consider suggestions. Even when offered suggestions, they may react negatively, saying, "I know how to do my work. Don’t give me suggestions." Closeness of mind may lead to rejecting useful and profitable ideas. This barrier often arises when the person has a strong urge to maintain the status quo.

Some Other Barriers:

• The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias where our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about their character.
• The horn effect is closely related to the halo effect and is a form of cognitive bias that causes one's perception of another to be unduly influenced by a single negative trait.
• Language barriers relate to the use of words, jargons, and different interpretations by senders and receivers. The same statement may carry different meanings for different people. This deters the process of effective communication.

Semantics Barrier:

• Semantics is the study of words and their meanings.
• Problems arise due to the transmission of meanings, which are semantic problems.
• Different words can have different meanings for different people.
• Around 500 words in the English language have about 25 definitions each.
• Because of this, they are often interpreted differently.
• If the sender and receiver understand the word the same way, communication is complete and effective; otherwise, miscommunication is likely to happen.

There are two types of semantic barriers that exist in communication: denotative barriers and connotative barriers.

1. Connotation refers to the hidden meaning that gives words more emotional impact.
2. Denotation is the literal and exact meaning of the word, as defined in the dictionary.

Cultural Barrier:

• Cultural barriers occur when people from different cultures are unable to understand each other's customs, leading to misunderstandings, inconveniences, and difficulties.
• Ethnocentrism
• Stereotyping — Judging others based on one's own culture
• Conflicting Values
• Language Barriers — Words mean different things to different people
• High Context and Low Context Cultures — Low context cultures rely more on explicit communication, whereas high context cultures depend on implicit understanding

Mechanical Barriers:

• The various causes of mechanical obstacles could be technical barriers, disturbances in the communication channel, illegible hand-writing, or noisy telephonic lines.
• The mechanical walls can create difficulty in the reception of either some parts of the message or the entire message.

According to Robbins sequence of communication barriers is:

1. Filtering is the distortion or withholding of information to manage a person's reactions. Some examples of filtering include a manager who keeps his division’s poor sales figures from her boss, fearing that the bad news will make him angry.
2. Selectiveperception refers to filtering what we see and hear to suit our own needs.
3. Information overloadcan be defined as “occurring when the information processing demands on an individual’s time to perform interactions and internal calculations exceed the supply or capacity of time available for such processing.”
4. Emotional disconnects happen when the sender or the receiver is upset, whether about the subject at hand or about some unrelated incident that may have happened earlier.
5. Language- Communicated messages must be understandable to the receiver. Words mean different things to different people. Language reflects not only the personality of the individual but also the culture of society in which the individual is living.

Mass Media

• Mass Media or mass communication is a technology that is intended to reach a mass audience or a large group of people.
• It is a primary means of communication used to reach the general public.

There are 6 main types of Mass Media:

1. Traditional Media
2. Print Media
3. Electronic/Broadcasting Media
4. Outdoor Media or Out of Home Media (OOH)
5. Transit Media
6. Digital Media/New Media/Internet
7. Traditional Media -

• People have developed different ways of communication depending upon their local language and culture.
• Traditional media is one of the oldest types of mass media to transfer traditions and culture over generations.
• The tools of communication have been developed from beliefs, customs, rituals, and practices of society.
• Traditional media imparts indigenous ways of communication for ages.
• Further, this type of mass media varied as per each culture and society as every culture has their own mediums to communicate to their mass audience.
• Thus, the traditional media can be folk songs, dances, folktales and folklore as well as paintings, sculptures, stupas, statues and fairs, festivals, rural or community radio and announcement mediums like nagada, etc.

Forms of Traditional Media

• Folk Dances
• Folk Songs and Music,
• Theatre, Drama, and Folktales
• Painting, Sculptures, Inscriptions, Statues, and Stupas
• Motifs and Symbols
• Announcements made by beating drums or 'nagada'
• Shadow Puppetry and String Puppetry
• Storytelling
• Nautanki
• Fairs and Festivals

2. Print Media

• In simple words, Print Media is all about the printed form of information and news.
• Before the invention of the printing press, printed materials had to be hand- written that made mass distribution almost impossible
• Print media is one of the basic types of mass media tools making it very popular and convenient to reach a wider audience.
• Print media is the method of mass communication used to transmit information in printed form where there is an in-depth analysis and reporting of any information.
• It is considered a Mechanical medium in mass communication.

Newspapers

• are considered as the oldest forms of mass media after the traditional mass media as for a long period of time,
• the general public relied on newspapers to know the latest happenings in their local areas as well as from around the world.
• Thus, print media originally refers to newspapers and then expanded towards magazines, tabloids, promotional brochures, journals, books, novels and comics.

Forms of Print Media •

• Newspapers (broadsheet and tabloid)
• Periodicals, Newsletters, and Magazines (general or specific interest)
• Journals
• Books, Novels and Comics

Electronic Broadcasting Media

• Broadcasting is simply a distribution of audio and video content to a dispersed audience using the electronic broadcasting medium.
• Originally the term 'broadcasting' referred to the sowing of seeds on farms by scattering them over the large field.
• Broadcast media allows ease of news dissemination to even an illiterate person because it appeals to both the auditory and visual senses making it one of the most lucrative types of mass media.

Centuries later after the newspapers were used as the original mass media, the advent of radio and television happened. Radio was the primary medium of news for the general public during wars as well as for sports and entertainment. When television was invented, it became the most effective type of mass media as it was primarily used for news dissemination and then for TV shows, live events and other entertainment purposes.

Forms of Broadcasting Media

• Television
• Radio (AM, FM, Pirate Radio, Terrestrial Radio, and Satellite)
• Traditional Telephone
• Film/Movie/Motion Picture
• Video Games
• Audio Recording and Reproduction

Outdoor Media

• This is also known as OOH or Out-of-Home Media and is focussed on transmitting information and news when the public is outside their home.
• Outdoor media gives importance to display advertising and attracting individuals towards new products, some social cause or any development or change in the society.
• • These are prominent in brand promotion seen on buildings, streets, electric polls, roadside, vehicles, screens, kiosks, etc.
• This is one of the most prominent types of mass media used for commercial as well as public welfare advertising and mainly includes billboards, banners, posters, brochure distribution, ComPark Advertising, Wallscape, amongst others.

Forms of Outdoor Media

• Billboards or Bulletins
• Inflatable Billboards
• Mobile Billboards
• Banner
• Lamppost Banners
• Posters
• Signs and Placards
• Blimps, Skywriting
• Brochure distribution
• ComPark Advertising
• Wallscape

Transit Media

• Transit Media revolves around the concept of advertising and information dissemination when consumers are "on the gofin public places or in transit.
• These include display advertising on vehicles and transportation, With the aim "driving home a message" transit media is significantly used for massive brand promotion to millions of people who travel the country's streets and highways every day.
• Some people might think that this type of mass media is outdated or ineffective, yet it is widely visible on the sides of buses, in subway cars, at transit stations where passengers enter or disembark from public transportation.

Forms of Transit Media

• Bus Advertising
• Railway Advertising
• Taxi Advertising
• Transit Shelter Advertising

New Media or Digital Media

• Since the invention of the World Wide Web by English scientist Tim Berners-Lee In 1989, the Internet has drastically taken over all the types of mass media because of faster dissemination speed and higher digital technology.
• New Media is an interactive two-way communication with users being the active producers of content and information.
• The Internet is considered as a highly interactive mass medium and can be simply defined as the "network of networks".
• It has quickly transformed as the centre of the mass media as it has marvellously integrated all the prominent types of mass media.
• Now, you can see news websites, broadcasted TV shows as well as listen to online radio using the internet and this is also called as the convergence of mass media!

Functions of Mass Media

• Mass communication doesn't exist for a single purpose.
• With its evolution, more and more uses have developed and the role it plays in our lives has increased greatly.
• Wright characterizes seven functions of mass communication that offer insight into its role in our lives.
• Mass media performs a variety of functions, including agenda-setting, surveillance, entertainment, and socialization.

Surveillance:

• The first function of mass communication is to serve as the eyes and ears for those seeking information about the world.
• The internet, televisions, and newspapers are the main sources for finding out what's going around you.
• Society relies on mass communication for news and information about our daily lives.
• We can find out about the weather, current issues, the latest celebrity gossip, and even start times for games.

Correlation:

• Correlation addresses how the media presents facts that we use to move through the world.
• The information received through mass communication is not objective and without bias.
• People ironically state "it must be true if it's on the internet."
• However, we don't think that in generations past people must have without a doubt stated it "has to be true" because it was on the radio.
• This statement begs the question, how credible are the media?
• Can we consume media without questioning motive and agenda?
• Someone selects, arranges, interprets, edits, and critiques the information used in the media.
• If you ask anyone who works for a major reality TV show if what we see is a fair representation of what really happens, the person would probably tell you "no."
• In the context of mass communication, the term 'correlation' pertains to the role of media in selecting, interpreting, and presenting information, as well as in commenting on it, thereby helping the audience comprehend and make sense of the vast amount of daily information.
• Thus, 'correlation' in mass communication is closely associated with the function of interpretation.

Sensationalization:

• There is an old saying in the news industry "if it bleeds, it leads," which highlights the idea of Sensationalization.
• Sensationalization is when the media puts forward the most sensational messages to titillate consumers.
• Elliot observes, "Media managers think in terms of consumers rather than citizens.
• Good journalism sells, but unfortunately, bad journalism sells as well.
• And, bad journalism-stories that simply repeat government claims or that reinforce what the public wants to hear instead of offering independent reporting -is cheaper and easier to produce"

Entertainment:

• Media outlets such as People Magazine, TMZ, and entertainment blogs such as Perez Hilton keep us up to date on the daily comings and goings of our favorite celebrities.
• We use technology to watch sports, go to the movies, play video games, watch YouTube videos, and listen to music, books, and podcasts on our phones on a daily basis.
• Most mass communication simultaneously entertains and informs.
• People often turn to media during our leisure time to provide an escape from boredom and relief from the predictability of our everyday lives.
• We rely on media to take us places we could not afford to go or imagine, acquaints us with bits of culture, and make us laugh, think or cry.
• Entertainment can have the secondary effect of providing companionship and/or catharsis through the media we consume.

Transmission:

• Mass media is a vehicle to transmit cultural norms, values, rules, and habits.
• Consider how you learned about what's fashionable in clothes or music.
• Mass media plays a significant role in the socialization process.
• We look for role models to display appropriate cultural norms, but all too often, not recognizing their inappropriate or stereotypical behavior.
• Mainstream society starts shopping, dressing, smelling, walking, and talking like the person in the music video, commercial, or movies.
• Why would soft drink companies pay Kim Kardashian or Taylor Swift millions of dollars to sell their products?
• Have you ever bought a pair of shoes or changed your hairstyle because of something you encountered in the media?
• Obviously, culture, age, type of media, and other cultural variables factor into how mass communication influences how we learn and perceive our culture.

Mobilization:

• Mass communication functions to mobilize people during times of crisis (McQuail, 1994) Think back to the Boston Marathon Bombing.
• Regardless of your association to the incident, Americans felt the attack as a nation and people followed the news until they found the perpetrators.
• With instant access to media and information, we can collectively witness the same events taking place in real time somewhere else, thus mobilizing a large population of people around a particular event.
• The online community Reddit.com is a key example of the internet's proactivity.
• While the FBI was investigating the bombing, the Reddit community was posting witness's photos and trying to help identify the culprits.
• People felt they were making a difference.

Validation:

• Mass communication functions to validate the status and norms of particular individuals, movements, organizations, or products.
• The validation of particular people or groups serves to enforce social norms (Lazarsfeld & Merton).
• If you think about most television dramas and sitcoms, who are the primary characters?
• What gender and ethnicity are the majority of the stars?

THEORY OF MASS COMMUNICATION

1. The spiral of silence theory (Noelle-Neumann 1974)

• explains changes in people's willingness to express their opinion as the result of a fear of being socially isolated.
• People sense the opinions on controversial topics of those around them and modify their public behaviour accordingly.
• Fear of isolation pulls us downward on the spiral SPIRAL OF SILENCE "Popular" Opinion Willingness to speak out person with unpopular opinion remaining silent

1. Cultivation Theory

• The cultivation theory was proposed by George Gerbner.
• It is one of the core theories of media effects. According to the theory, people who watch television frequently are more likely to be influenced by the messages from the world of television.
• The influence goes to such an extent that their world view and perceptions start reflecting what they repeatedly see and hear on television.
• Television is, therefore, considered to contribute independently to the way people perceive social reality.

1. Uses and gratifications theory

• Elihu Katz first introduced the Uses and Gratification Approach.
• Uses and gratifications characterizes people as active and motivated in selecting the media they choose to consume.
• The theory relies on two principles: media users are active in their selection of the media they consume, and they are aware of their reasons for selecting different media options.
• It is a communication theory that describes the reasons and means by which people seek out media to meet specific needs.

1. Reception Theory

• Stuart Hall developed reception theory, popularly known as Audience Theory or reader's reception theory) in 1973.
• His essay 'Encoding and Decoding Television Discourse' focuses on the encoding and decoding of the content given to the audience no matter the form of media such as magazines/papers, television/radios, games.
• Hall proposed that audience members can play an active role in decoding messages as they rely on their own social context and capability of changing messages through collective action.
• Hall Has Given (a four-stage model of communication that takes into account the production, circulation, use and reproduction of media messages.
  1. Production - This is where the encoding, the construction of a message begins.
  2. Circulation - How individuals perceive things: visual vs. written. How things are circulated influences how audience members will receive the message and put it to use.
  3. Use (distribution or consumption) - For a message to be successfully "realized", "the broadcasting structures must yield encoded messages in the form of a meaningful discourse." This means that the message has to be adopted as a meaningful discourse and it has to be meaningfully decoded. However, the decoding/interpreting of a message requires active recipients.
  4. Reproduction -
     • This stage is directly after audience members have interpreted a message in their own way based on their experiences and beliefs.
     • The decoded meanings are the ones with "an effect" (e.g. influence, instruct, entertain) with "very complex perceptual, cognitive, emotional, ideological or behavioral consequences."[1]
     • What is done with the message after it has been interpreted is where this stage comes in.
     • At this point, you will see whether individuals take action after they have been exposed to a specific message.
• Stuart hall states that as the audience of a given piece of media text, there are 3 different ways to interpret said text.
• Producers generally encode a specific message or meaning within their product and then the audience decodes it in 1 of 3 ways:
• Preferred reading, oppositional reading or negotiated reading.
• Preferred reading (also known as dominant):
• This is when the producer picks and chooses how they want their audience to view the media text.
• Oppositional reading: This is when the audience create their own meaning for the text and ignore the preferred reading that the producer is trying to portray.
• Negotiated reading: This is like the in-between of preferred and oppositional reading - the audience allows the preferred reading and accepts the producers views but at the same time, they would also have views of their own.
• CONSUMPTION (Decode Message) REPRODUCTION (React upon message) CIRCULATION (Transmit Message) PRODUCTION (Encode Message)
• Codes of reception in communication includes: •
• Dominant: This is when the audience fully shares the code of the message and accepts and reproduces the preferred reading, meaning they interpret the message exactly as the sender intended.
• Negotiated: Here, the audience acknowledges the dominant message but negotiates an interpretation that fits their own experiences and beliefs.
• Oppositional: In this code, the audience understands the dominant code but decodes the message in a way that opposes it, creating an alternative interpretation.

The Influence of Mass Media on Society

• There are three main perspectives that exist to explain this relationship

Limited Effects Theory

1. Limited effects theory argues that media has an insignificant role as people usually read and watch stuff based on their belief systems, prior experience and knowledge.
2. This theory was tested in 1950s, the time when we had limited media options.
3. So, a lot of people are also critical of this perspective.

Class Dominant Theory

1. This theory states that media projects the opinion and views of dominant class (usually some economic elite or political elite).
2. As per this theory, messages that are disseminated via mass media is hugely controlled and regulated by dominant class,
3. This happens in conjunction with the corporate mergers of media houses.
4. In cases when ownership is restricted to corporations, media becomes more about consumerism than information.
5. The modern advertising is the example of such influence.
6. This makes the relationship between mass media and society a complex web of economic relationship.
7. Media also becomes a tool for political mobilisation in the hands of power elites.

Culturist Theory

1. This theory was a later development (1990 s) and is a combination of the previous theories.
2. This theory argues that the audience doesn't play a passive role in message reproduction.
3. In fact, people interact with media actively and create meaning as per their own cultural and social context.
4. Thus, culturalist theorists assert - though a few elite in large corporations may exert significant control over what information media produces and distributes, personal perspective and experience play a more influential role in how the audience members interpret those messages.

Two step Flow theory of Mass Communication(Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955))

• The concept of the 'two-step flow of communication' suggests that the flow of information and influence from the mass media to their audiences involves two steps:
  1. from the media to certain individuals (i.e., the opinion leaders) and
  2. from them to the public.
• One example is when an influential political pundit interprets news that comes from the media and relays their opinion to the public. In this scenario, the political pundit is the opinion leader who is sharing their interpretation of the news with the masses.
• (1) Mass Media TV, Radio N.P opinion leader opinion leader opinion opinion follower follower opinion follower opinion follower

Hypodermic Needle Theory

• also known as Magic Bullet theory (Harold Lasswell)
• The hypodermic needle model is a model of communication suggesting that an intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receiver.
• A linear communication theory which suggests that the media has a direct and powerful influence on audiences, like being injected with a hypodermic needle.
• This theory assumes Audience are passive and they can't resist the media message.
• Examples of hypodermic needle theory include the use of direct advertising, social media influencers, product placements, and celebrity endorsements to directly and quickly affect audience consumer behavior.

Magic Bullet Theory [Hypodermic Needle Theory]

• Strategically designed media message could manipulate passive and gulliblepudience Linear communication Media Powerful Meunge Strategically crecled Audience passive audience "The Magic Bullet theory gropphically osusumes that the medic's message is a bullet fired from the 'media gun into viewer's head" (Berger, 1995) mass communication process is direct, powerful, and inmediate, nd messages strikes every eyes and earn in a similar way & has universal effect on their audiences.

Media convergence

• is the merging of different media forms into new and hybrid forms.
• The rise of social media, the development of smartphones, and the creation of online newspapers are all examples of media convergence.

Mass media

• in the digital age faces a number of challenges, including information overload, fake news, and loss of audience.
• Mass media has a responsibility to provide accurate information, hold the powerful accountable, and give voice to the voiceless.

Media regulation can take a variety of forms, including self-regulation, government regulation, and professional regulation. Journalists face a number of ethical dilemmas, such as protecting sources, reporting on sensitive topics, and avoiding conflicts of interest.

Metacognition

• is a broader concept that involves awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, not just the use of language.
• It encompasses skills like self-regulation, monitoring one's own learning, and awareness of one's cognitive processes.
• On the other hand, Statement II incorrectly defines mnemonics.
• Mnemonics are actually memory aids or techniques used to enhance memory and recall, not a knowledge about our own thinking processes.

First Highway of Information

• The term "first highway of information" refers to a medium that dramatically changed the way information was disseminated.
• Among the options provided, the telegraph stands out as the most transformative in its time.
• Introduced in the 19th century, the telegraph enabled almost long-distance communication, revolutionizing how information was shared across vast distances.

Soaps, sitcoms, and comics

• are all forms of entertainment that appeal to a broad range of the population regardless of class distinctions.
• These are examples of accessible and mainstream cultural products. Hence, they are part of "Popular culture."

Mass Culture

• Production and distribution of products on large scale.
• Maximum use of technology and television to distribute goods to masses.
• Popular Culture- Is a set of practices and beliefs liked by large number of people and it is likely to become fashion or trend.

Highbrows

• Used colloquially as a noun or adjective, "highbrow" is synonymous with intellectual; as an adjective, it also means elite, and generally carries a connotation of high culture.(motley like ballet dance, opera, Jazz music)
• Highbrows usually have money and are sometimes considered snobby or hoity-toity.
• The opposite of highbrow is lowbrow, which refers to vulgar and less sophisticated culture and people.

Middle brow Culture-

• According to the Oxford English Dictionary, 'middlebrow', only moderately intellectual; of average or limited cultural interests (sometimes with the implication of pretensions to more than this).
• Of an artistic work, etc.: of limited intellectual or cultural value; demanding or involving only a moderate degree of intellectual application, typically as a result of not deviating from convention.

<br> Models of Communication In order to explain the social process of communication, scholars have developed several models. The three most well known models for communication are Linear, Interactional, and Transactional.

LINEAR MODEL रैखिक मॉडल KEY FEATURES

• One-way communication
• Used for mass communication
• Sender send message and receivers only receive
• No feedback
• Concept of noise -> barriers

Mass Comm (Imp) PROS

• Good at audience persuasion and propaganda setting
• Intentional results

CONS

• Communication is not continuous as no concept of feedback.
• No way to know if communication was effective L A B (S) noise LINEAR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Topic: Models of Communication- Introduction and Linear Model Linear Models of communication are(LABS):

• Lasswell's Model
• Aristotie's Model
• Shannon Weaver Model
• Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

Aristotle's Model अरस्तू का मॉडल Aristotle developed a linear model of communication for oral communication known as Aristotle's Model of Communication. This is considered as the first model of communication and was proposed before 300 B.C. It is also the most widely accepted among all communication models.

Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech. It can be broadly divided into 5 primary elements: अरस्तू मॉडल मुख्य रूप से वक्ता और भाषण पर केंद्रित है। इसे मोटे तौर पर 5 प्राथमिक तत्वों में विभाजित किया जा सकता है:

1. Speaker
2. Speech
3. स्पीकर
4. भाषण
5. Occasion
6. अवसर
7. Audience

दर्शक 5. Effect 5. प्रभाव

Lasswell's communication model was developed by communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell in 1948. Lasswell's model of communication (also known as action model or linear model or one way model of communication) ले स्वेल का संचार मॉडल 1948 में संचार सिद्धातकार हरोल्ड डी. लास्वेल द्वारा विकसित किया गया था। लास्खेल के संचार मॉडल (जिसे एक्शन मॉडल या रैखिक मॉडल या संचार के एक तरफा मॉडल के रूप में भी जाना जाता है) Who: the person who formulates the message What: the content of the message Channel: the medium by which the message is being communicated Whom: the person or person who receive the message Effect: the outcome of the message.

In the year 1949 (Claude Shannon,) an electrical engineer) and Warren Weaver propounded mathematical model of communication. This model particularly explains electronic communication in a simple linear way which is easily understandable.वर्ष 1949 में क्लाउड शैनन, एक इलेक्ट्रिकल इंजीनियर और वॉरेन वीवर ने संचार का एक गणितीय मॉडल प्रतिपादित किया। यह मॉडल विशेष रूप से इलेक्ट्रॉनिक संचार को एक सरल रैखिक तरीके से समझाता है जो आसानी से समझ में आता है। (a) Information Source: - It is the beginning of the process. It represents some purpose on the part of sender. (b) Message: - It is the information passing between sender and receiver in the communication process. (c) Transmitter: - The sender of message is an encoded form is known as transmitter. (a) सूचना स्रोत: - यह प्रक्रिया की शुरुआत है। यह प्रेषक की ओर से कुछ उद्देश्य का प्रतिनिधित्व करता है। (b) संदेश: - यह संचार प्रक्रिया में प्रेषक और रिसीवर के बीच गुजरने वाली जानकारी है। (c) ट्रांसमीटर: - संदेश का प्रेषक एक एन्कोडेड रूप है जिसे ट्रांसमीटर के रूप में जाना जाता है। phone

<br> (d) Noise Source:- The model recognized the potential of noise in distorting the message while transfer through channel. (e) Reception: He is the person to whom information is send. He decodes the information. (f) Destination:- It is the end of the communication process. (d) ध्वनि स्त्रोत - मॉडल ने चैनल के माध्यम से स्थानांतरण करते समय संदेश को विकृत करने में शोर की क्षमता को पहचाना। (e) रिसेप्शनः वह वह व्यक्ति है जिसे सूचना भेजी जाती है। वह जानकारी को डिकोड करता है। (f) गंतव्यः यह संचार प्रक्रिया का अंत है। (Noise) (decode) (Sender) msg Transmitter Reception - Dastin hah

The Shannon-Weaver Model Nock According to Shannon and Weaver, the communication process presents problem at three different levels:

Level A. The Technical Problem. It is concerned with the accuracy of transference of symbols of communication from sender to receiver, the accuracy depending on the technical efficacy of the medium (e.g. a telephone set) and of the channel (e.g. a telephone cable).

Level B. The Semantic Problem. (Words) It is concerned with identity or satisfactorily close approximation of the intended meaning of the sender and the interpretation of meaning by the receiver.

Level C. The Effectiveness Problem. It is concerned with the extent to which the received meaning affects the conduct of the receiver in the way desired by the sender through channel. Level C involves the efffectiveness problem where we find out how effectively the message is delivered and how the message is decoded. This problem only arises due to the source of communication such as transferring message through phones can create technical issue with communication.

BERLO'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION In 1960, David Berlo postulated Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication from Shannon Weaver's Model of Communication (1949). He described factors affecting the individual components in the communication making the communication more efficient. This model also focuses on encoding and decoding which happens before sender sends the message and before receiver receives the message respectively.

Components of Berlo's Model of Communication The following are the factor related to sender and is also the same in the case of receiver. Communication Skills-If the sender has good communication skills, the message will be communicated better than if the sender's communication skills are not good. Similarly, if the receiver can not grasp the message, then the communication will not be effective. Communication skills include the skills to speak, present, read, write listening, etc.

Attitude-The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the message. The person's attitude towards self, the receiver and the environment changes the meaning and effect of the message. Knowledge-Familiarity with the subject of the message makes the communicated message have its effect more. Knowledge on the subject matter makes the communicator send the message effectively.

Social Systems-Values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion and many other social factors affect the sender's way of communicating the message. It creates difference in the generation of message. Place and situation also fall under social systems. Culture-Cultural differences make message different. A person from one culture might find something offensive which is very much accepted in another culture.

M-Message A message is the substance that is being sent by the sender to the receiver. It might be in the form of voice, audio, text, video or other media. The key factors affecting the message are Content-Content is the thing that is in the message. The whole message from beginning to end is the content. Stient

Elements-Elements are the non verbal things that tag along with the content like gestures, signs, language,etc. Treatment-Treatment is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver, Treatment also effects the feedback to the receiver.

Structure-The structure of the message or the way it has been structured or arranged, affects the effectiveness of the message. Code-Code is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of language, text, video, etc.

C-Channel Channel is the medium used to send the message. In mass communication and other forms of communication, technical machines might be used as a channel like telephone, internet, etc. But in general communication, the five senses of a human being is the channel for the communication flow and it affects the effectiveness of the channel.

1. Hearing-We receive the message through hearing.
2. Seeing - We perceive through seeing. We also get non-verbal messages by seeing.
3. Touching Many of the non-verbal communication happens from touching like

holding hands. Smelling - We collect information from smelling. 5. Tasting-Taste also provides the information to be sent as a message.

R-Receiver Receiver is the person who gets the message sent in the process. This model believes that the thinking pattern and all other factors mentioned above must be in sync to that of the sender for the communication to be effective. The message might not have the same effect as intended if the receiver and sender are not similar. The receiver must also have a very good listening skill Other factors are similar to that of the sender.

INTERACTIONAL COMMUNICATION MODEL: CINT • In the move to a more dynamic view of communication, interactional models follow two channels in which communication and feedback flow between sender and receiver. Feedback is simply a response that a receiver gives to a sender. Most importantly, feedback indicates comprehension. It can help senders know if their message was received and understood. By focusing on flow and feedback, interactional models view communication as an ongoing process.

CHANNEL CHANNEL LOND KEY FEATURES Used for new communications like internet Concept of field of experience Known as convergence model Communication becomes linear if receiver does not respond PROS Feedback even in the communication new communication channels COINS Feedback can take a very long time Sender and receiver might not know who the other person INTERACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Media

Interactional Model Cucklan • The final feature of this model is the field of experience. The field of experience refers to how environment, experiences, culture, and even heredity can influence how a sender constructs a message. Keep in mind that each person brings a unique field of experience to an interaction. Likewise, each communication interaction is unique. Field of Experience is everything that makes a person unique-everything that he/she has ever learned, watched, seen, hear, read, and studied.

• The communication process take place between humans or machines in both verbal or non-verbal way. This is a relatively new model of communication for new technologies like web. The interactive model of communication indicates mediated and internet-based communication.

Wilbur Schramm 1955

• Mass Communications Founding Father. Wilbur Schramm is considered the father of Mass Communication studies.
• This model is also known as the Osgood-Schramm model of communication(also known as convergence model). Unlike other communication models, this model is a circular or cyclical model that consists of all the essential elements of communication.

• Schramm's Model of Communication was proposed in 1954 and had its origins in the Shannon-weaver model. Initially, it was proposed by Charles Osgood. He initially proposed that communication is not a linear model but a circular model. This model was later amended by W.Schramm, who mentioned it in his book.

• The Schramm model of communication, proposed by Wilbur Schramm in 1954, is a more interactive and dynamic approach compared to the linear model. It emphasizes the importance of feedback and mutual understanding between the sender and receiver. Here's a breakdown of the Schramm model in simple terms: Source: This is where the communication begins. It could be a person, group, or organization that has a message to convey.

• Encoder: The source encodes or puts the message into a form that can be sent through a communication channel. This could involve using words, gestures, symbols, or any other means of expression. • Message: This is the information, idea, or emotion that the source wants to communicate. It's what the sender wants to convey to the receiver.

• Channel: The channel is the medium through which the message is transmitted from the sender to the receiver. It could be face-to-face conversation, written text, phone calls, emails, or any other communication tool. • Decoder: On the receiver's end, the message is decoded or interpreted. The receiver tries to understand what the sender is trying to convey.

• Destination: The destination is the person or group for whom the the message message is intended. They receive the message from the sender. • Feedback: Once the destination receives the message, they provide feedback to the sender. Feedback could be verbal or non-verbal and helps the sender understand how the message was received and interpreted.

• Noise: Noise refers to any interference or disturbance that affects the communication process. It could be external factors like loud background noise or internal factors like language barriers or distractions. • The Schramm model emphasizes the interactive nature of communication, where both the sender and receiver play active roles in the process. It highlights the importance of feedback and understanding to ensure effective communication.

Westley and MacLean's Conceptual Model, 1957 • The Westley and Maclean model of communication explains how communication takes. It can explain the communication process for both interpersonal and mass communication. It is best known for its recognition of the influence of environment factors and subjectivity in communication. Communication is seen to start with environmental factors which influence someone to speak. Each receiver responds to the message they received based on their object of orientation.

<br> 1. Environment (X) • Communication starts with the environment around the speaker. Some stimulus in the environment will motivate the person to create a message and send it out. 2. Sensory Experiences (XI) • The speaker experiences something in their environment in some way or another, which motivates them to send their message.

The speaker may receive the initial stimulus by: Watching television. Hearing something from a friend. Learning about something at work.

1. Source (A) • The source is the person who sends the message.

2. Object Of Orientation Of The Source (X2) • The object of orientation of the source is the subjective beliefs or experiences of the person sending the message.

3. Receiver • The receiver is the person who gets the message.

4. Object Of Orientation Of The Receiver (X3) • The object of orientation of the receiver is the subjective beliefs or experiences of the person receiving the message. The receiver will decode a message using their own personal perspectives.

5. Feedback • The Westley-Maclean model sees feedback loops as important for influencing how messages are sent.

6. Gatekeepers • Gatekeepers are more common in mass communication than interpersonal communication. Gatekeepers are present in mass communication. The gatekeeper is the person who ensures the message is filtered and tailored to the wishes of the public and media companies.

<br> <br> <br> Transaction Model of Communication संचार का लेन-देन मॉडल (face to fo CHANNEL MESSAGE/TEISRACK KEY FEATURES

• Used for interpersonal comutuation
• Senders and receivers strange roles
• Smultaneous feedback
• Context of environment and noise PROS
• Simultaneous and instant feeстий CONS
• Encourages rennbal communsortion
• due to communiters saking at the same time TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION S

<br> • The Transaction Model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. • The roles of sender and receiver in the Transaction Model of communication differ significantly from those in the other models.

• Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators. • Unlike the Interaction Model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the Transaction Model suggests that you are simultaneously a sender and receiver. ?

EUGENE WHITE'S MODEL (1960) • Eugene White's Model tell that communication in circular and continuous, without a beginning or an end. He also introduced the concept of feedback. • Eugene White gave his communication students a sequence of events that takes place in communication. These 8 stages of communication are the following:

• Thinking - desire, feeling, or an emotion provides a speaker a stimulus to communicate a need • Symbolizing - before he can utter sounds, a speaker has to know the code of oral language with which to represent his ideas and in order to make his selection. • Expressing - the speaker then uses his vocal mechanism to produce the sounds of language accompanied by facial expressions, gestures, and body stance

Transmitting - waves of sound spreading at 1,000 feet per second and wave of light travelling at a speed of 186,000 miles per second carry the speaker's message to the listeners • Receiving - sound waves impinge upon the listener's ears after which the resulting nerve impulses reach the brain via the auditory nerve; light wave strikes the listener's eyes after which the resulting nerve impulses reach the brain via the optic nerve

• Decoding – the listener interprets the language symbols he receives and thinks further • Feedbacking – the listener may manifest overt behavior like a nod, smile, or yawn or he may not show any behavior at all (covert behavior like fast heartbeat, a poker face, etc.)

• Monitoring – while the speaker watches for sings of reception or understanding of his message among his listeners, he is also attuned to what's going on inside him; the speaker is receiving, and decoding message about himself from his audience in order to adjust to the particular situation • Implies a step-by-step sequence that starts with thinking in the speaker and ends with monitoring with the speaker.

Communication is a repetitive, cyclical. संचार एक दोहरावपूर्ण, चक्रीय प्रक्रिया है। Expressing Transmitting Symbolizing Thinking EUGENE WHITE'S MODEL Interactive (1960) Transactional Monitoring Receiving Decoding feedback

Dance's Helical Spiral, 1967 given by Frank Dance • Depicts communication as a dynamic process. • Mortensen: "The helix represents the way communication evolves in an individual from his birth to the existing moment."

• Dance: "At any and all times, the helix gives geometrical testimony to the concept that communication while moving forward is at the same moment coming back upon itself and being affected by its past behavior, for the coming curve of the helix is fundamentally affected by the curve from which it emerges.

• Yet, even though slowly, the helix can gradually free itself from its lower-level distortions. The communication process, like the helix, is constantly moving forward and yet is always to some degree dependent upon the past, which informs the present and the future. The helical communication model offers a flexible communication process"

Dean Barnlund model • Dean Barnlund proposed a transactional model of communication in 1970 for basic interpersonal communication which articulates that sending and receiving of messages happens simultaneously between people which is popularly known as Barnlund's Transactional Model of Communication. The model has been further adapted and reformed by other theorists is General Transactional Model. The model shifted from the trend of linear model to dynamic and two way communication model.

Murphy's Model: / मर्फी का मॉडल: CONTEXT Stimuli Situation Sender-Encoder (experience, Perception Iden encoding Symbol decision Sending mechanism Message Medium Verbal, Non-Verbal Receiver-Decoder (experience Receator Mechanisms Perception Decoding Idea Interpretation Feedback

This communication process model is propounded by three writers H.A. MURPHY, H.W. HILDBRANT and J.P.THOMAS. According to this model; there are six components of communication process: (a) Context: Context is a broad field that includes country, culture, organization, internal & external cause of action and every message weather oral or written begins with context. (b) Sender-Encoder:- The second-encoder used symbols, usually words, to express the message and create desired response.

(c) Message:- The message is the core idea the sender wishes to communicate. It consists of both verbal and non-verbal symbols. (d) Medium:- It is the channel through which a message is communicated. It can be printed-word, e-mail, sound or gesture.

(e) Receiver-decoder:- The receiver/listener is the person who receives the message and decodes it. (f) Feedback:- It can be oral or written. It can be an action such as receiving an ordered item. Sender needs feedback in order to determine the success or failure of the communication.

Thill and Bovee Model: - According to Thill and Bovee communication model, business communication is more than a single act. It is a chain of events consisting of five phases linking sender and receiver. (a) Idea: The sender has an idea. In the process of conceiving an idea about the real world, the sender leaves out many things but assumes some things. This means idea in the mind of sender is a simplification of the real world. (b) Message: The idea in the mind of sender is transformed into words and thus becomes a message. The message may be expressed in many ways.

Thill & Bovee model/थिल और बोवी मॉडल Interactive/इंटरएक्टिव Idea/ Sende r Message Transmission of message Receiver Feedback

(c) Message is transmitted: The 3rd step in the process is physical transmission of the message through verbal or non-verbal channel, from sender to receiver. (d) Receiver gets Message:- For communication to occur, the receiver has to get the message, and understand the message and store the message mentally.

<br> (e) Feedback: The receiver reacts after receiving the message and sends feedback. Feedback is a key element in the communication process because it enables the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Then the process is repeated until both parties have finished expressing themselves.

Meta-communication is a secondary communication (including indirect cues) about how a piece of information is meant to be interpreted. It is based on the idea that the same message accompanied by different meta-communication can mean something entirely different, including its opposite. The term was brought to prominence by Gregory Bateson to refer to "communication about communication" • Meta-communication may or may not be congruent with, supportive of, or contradictory to that verbal communication

• Technological convergence refers to the merging of different technologies, services, or devices into a unified system. • This model takes a classic approach to explain the flow of communication. It suggests that communication is a two-way path with the message continually passing between the sender and receiver. • With his model of communication, communication breadkdown is explained. he affirms that there should have the same field of experience between the speaker and the listener.

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